Realization

In metrology, the realization (or embodiment) of a measurement unit or a measurement scale is the practical method by which the unit can be measured (or the scale put into practice). The realization of a unit or of a scale creates one or more measurement standards against which an unknown physical quantity of the same kind can be compared.

There are three general methods of realizing a unit or a scale. The first and most obvious is simply to follow the definition of the unit or scale, for example by measuring the distance travelled by light in vacuum in ¹⁄_299,792,458 of a second to realize the metre. The second method is to use a physical phenomenon which is accepted to be equivalent to the definition, for example realizing the metre by laser interferometry with a measured frequency of light. The third method is to have a physical standard, for example the now-obsolete International Prototype Metre.

As a realization is a measurement, it is associated with a measurement uncertainty, which is called the standard measurement uncertainty. The standard measurement uncertainty is a component of the uncertainty in any measurement result which relies on the measurement standard, although it is often (indeed usually) negligeable compared to other components of the uncertainty.

History

The very earliest units of measurement were undoubtedly based on the dimensions of the human body, but these suffer from the obvious disadvantage that the dimensions differ between individuals. Standardized units of length and mass appear to have been introduced around the time of the first sedentary civilizations (about 8,000 years ago), length units being reproduceable to about one part in a thousand. Roman length units appear to have been reproduceable to about one part in ten thousand.

The introduction of gold coinage required the definition of standard masses to ensure the quality of minting. Indeed, the mass of coins became a convenient practical standard for small masses in many cultures. Larger masses were usually standardized at the marketplace, which gave rise to considerable variation between different locations even though the reproduceability at any given location was much better.

Prior to the introduction of the metric system at the end of the eighteenth century, both length and mass standards were based on "prototypes": that is, one yard was defined as the length of the standard yardstick and one pound was defined as the mass of the standard pound weight. The metric system made a philosophical break in deciding to use universal physical constants for the definitions of length and mass unit: ¹⁄_10000000 of the distance from the Equator to the North Pole for the metre, and the mass of one cubic decimetre of water at maximum density for the kilogram. The realizations of these definitions were carried out, and a metre bar and a kilogram weight were made as a permanent record of the measurements and stored in the National Archives in Paris. Nevertheless, when the original realizations were found to be slightly in error, it was the permanent records which prevailed as the basis of the metric system, converting them into prototype standards. New prototypes were made at the time of the international adoption of the metric system through the Metre Convention of 1875, and the International Prototype Kilogram is still the standard of mass measurements under the International System of Units (SI).

International System of Units

The realizations of the base units in the International System of Units (SI) are known as mises en pratique (literally, "putting into practice"), and are approved by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM).

Unit	Principle of realization	ur	Link
Metre	laser interferometry using standard wavelengths	10−12	[1]
Kilogram	mass of the International Prototype Kilogram immediately after cleaning and washing	<10−8	[2]
Second	caesium fountain atomic clock	<10−15	[3]
Ampere	SI watt, ohm and volt (two out of three suffice) conventional volt and ohm with SI values of KJ and RK	<10−6 10−7	[4]
Kelvin	International Temperature Scale (ITS-90)		[5]
Mole	molar mass	<10−6	[6]
Candela	radiometry with absolutely calibrated detectors		[7]

The relative standard measurement uncertainties (u_r) are given for the best realizations, such as those carried out in national physical laboratories. Routine realizations may have uncertainites which are several orders of magnitude larger.