Difference between revisions of "Atomic weight"

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{{distinguish|atomic mass}}
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'''Atomic weight''' (symbol: '''''A''<sub>r</sub>''') is a [[Dimensionless quantity|dimensionless]] [[physical quantity]], the ratio of the average [[mass]] of [[atom]]s of an [[chemical element|element]] (from a given source) to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of [[carbon-12]].<ref name="IUPAC1979">{{IUPAC atomic weights 1979}}.</ref><ref name="GreenBook">{{GreenBook2nd|page=41}}.</ref> The term is usually used, without further qualification, to refer to the '''standard atomic weights''' published at regular intervals by the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC)<ref>The latest edition is {{IUPAC atomic weights 2007}}.</ref> and which are intended to be applicable to normal laboratory materials. These standard atomic weights are reprinted in a wide variety of textbooks, commercial catalogues, wallcharts etc, and in the table below. The fact "[[relative atomic mass]]" may also be used to describe this physical quantity, and indeed the continued use of the term "atomic weight" has attracted considerable controversy since at least the 1960s<ref name="IUPAChist">{{IUPAC atomic weight history}}.</ref> (see below).
−
'''Atomic weight''' (symbol: ''A''{{sub|r}}) is a [[Dimensionless quantity|dimensionless]] [[physical quantity]], the ratio of the average [[mass]] of [[atom]]s of an [[chemical element|element]] (from a given source) to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of [[carbon-12]].<ref name="IUPAC1979">{{cite journal | author = [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] | title = Atomic Weights of the Elements 1979 | url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1980/pdf/5210x2349.pdf | doi = 10.1351/pac198052102349 | journal = [[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] | year = 1980 | volume = 52 | pages = 2349–84}}</ref><ref name="GreenBook">{{GreenBookRef2nd|page=41}}</ref> The term is usually used, without further qualification, to refer to the '''standard atomic weights''' published at regular intervals by the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC)<ref>The latest edition is {{cite journal | author = [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] | url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2006/pdf/7811x2051.pdf | title = Atomic Weights of the Elements 2005 | journal = [[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] | volume = 78 | issue = 11 | pages = 2051–66 | doi = 10.1351/pac200678112051 | year = 2006}}</ref><ref>The updated list of standard atomic weights is expected to be formally published in late 2008. The IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights [http://www.iupac.org/objID/Note/nt50112469625981329917907 announced] in August 2007 that the standard atomic weights of the following elements would be revised (new figures quoted here): [[lutetium]] 174.9668(1); [[molybdenum]] 95.96(2); [[nickel]] 58.6934(4); [[ytterbium]] 173.054(5); [[zinc]] 65.38(2). The recommended value for the isotope amount ratio of {{sup|40}}Ar/{{sup|36}}Ar (which could be useful as a [[Scientific control|control measurement]] in [[argon–argon dating]]) was also changed from 296.03(53) to 298.56(31).</ref> and which are intended to be applicable to normal laboratory materials. These standard atomic weights are reprinted in a wide variety of textbooks, commercial catalogues, wallcharts etc, and in the table below. The fact "[[relative atomic mass]]" may also be used to describe this physical quantity, and indeed the continued use of the term "atomic weight" has attracted considerable controversy since at least the 1960s<ref name="IUPAChist">{{cite journal | first = P. | last = de Bièvre | year = 1992 | title = 'Atomic Weight'—The Name, Its History, Definition, and Units | url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/1992/pdf/6410x1535.pdf | journal = [[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] | volume = 64 | issue = 10 | pages = 1535–43 | doi = 10.1351/pac199264101535 | last2 = Peiser | first2 = H. S.}}</ref> (see below).
 
  
 
Atomic weights, unlike atomic masses (the masses of individual atoms), are not [[physical constant]]s and vary from sample to sample. Nevertheless, they are sufficiently constant in "normal" samples to be of fundamental importance in [[chemistry]].
 
Atomic weights, unlike atomic masses (the masses of individual atoms), are not [[physical constant]]s and vary from sample to sample. Nevertheless, they are sufficiently constant in "normal" samples to be of fundamental importance in [[chemistry]].
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The IUPAC definition<ref name="IUPAC1979" /> of atomic weight is:
 
The IUPAC definition<ref name="IUPAC1979" /> of atomic weight is:
 
<blockquote>
 
<blockquote>
−
An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of an element from a specified source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of {{sup|12}}C.
+
An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of an element from a specified source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of <sup>12</sup>C.
 
</blockquote>
 
</blockquote>
  
−
The definition deliberately specifies "'''''An''''' atomic weight…", as an element will have different atomic weights depending on the source. For example, [[boron]] from [[Turkey]] has a lower atomic weight than boron from [[California]], because of its different [[Isotope|isotopic composition]].<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw1st|pages=pp.&nbsp;21, 160}}</ref><ref name="Rev2000">{{cite journal | author = [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] | title = Atomic Weights of the Elements: Review 2000 | url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2003/pdf/7506x0683.pdf | journal = [[Pure and Applied Chemistry|Pure Appl. Chem.]] | volume = 75 | issue = 6 | pages = 683–800 | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1351/pac200375060683}}</ref> Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of [[isotope analysis]], it is usual to use the tabulated values of standard atomic weights which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories.
+
The definition deliberately specifies "'''''An''''' atomic weight…", as an element will have different atomic weights depending on the source. For example, [[boron]] from [[Turkey]] has a lower atomic weight than boron from [[California]], because of its different [[Isotope|isotopic composition]].<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw1st|pages=21, 160}}.</ref><ref name="Rev2000">{{IUPAC atomic weight review 2000}}.</ref> Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of [[isotope analysis]], it is usual to use the tabulated values of standard atomic weights which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories.
 +
 
 +
==Values to four figures==
 +
{{PeriodicTable atomic weights 4-figs}}
  
 
== Naming controversy ==
 
== Naming controversy ==
Line 26: Line 28:
  
 
== Determination of atomic weight ==
 
== Determination of atomic weight ==
−
Modern atomic weights are calculated from measured values of atomic mass (for each nuclide) and [[isotopic composition]]. Highly accurate atomic masses are available<ref name="NIST">[[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]. [http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements].</ref><ref name="AME2003">{{AME 2003}}</ref> for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides, but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure to high precision and more subject to variation between samples.<ref name="TICE1997">{{AtWt TICE 1997}}</ref><ref name="IAvar">{{AtWt IAV}}</ref> For this reason, the atomic weights of the twenty-two [[mononuclidic element]]s are known to especially high accuracy – an uncertainty of only one part in 38&nbsp;million in the case of [[fluorine]], a precision which is greater than the current best value for the [[Avogadro constant]] (one part in 20&nbsp;million).
+
Modern atomic weights are calculated from measured values of atomic mass (for each nuclide) and [[isotopic composition]]. Highly accurate atomic masses are available<ref name="NIST">{{citation | publisher = National Institute of Standards and Technology | url = http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some | title = Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements | accessdate = 2010-03-20}}.</ref><ref name="AME2003">{{AME 2003}}</ref> for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides, but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure to high precision and more subject to variation between samples.<ref name="TICE2001">{{TICE 2001}}.</ref><ref name="IAvar">{{IUPAC IAV 2002}}.</ref> For this reason, the atomic weights of the twenty-two [[mononuclidic element]]s are known to especially high accuracy – an uncertainty of only one part in 38&nbsp;million in the case of [[fluorine]], a precision which is greater than the current best value for the [[Avogadro constant]] (one part in 20&nbsp;million).
  
−
{| class="wikitable" align="right"
+
{| class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin:0 0 0 0.5em;"
 
|-
 
|-
 
! rowspan=2 | Isotope
 
! rowspan=2 | Isotope
−
! rowspan=2 | Atomic mass<ref name="AME2003" />
+
! rowspan=2 | Relative<br/>atomic mass<ref name="AME2003" />
−
! colspan=2 | Abundance<ref name="TICE1997" />
+
! colspan=2 | Abundance<ref name="TICE2001" />
 
|-
 
|-
 
! Standard
 
! Standard
 
! Range
 
! Range
 
|-
 
|-
−
| align="center" | {{sup|28}}Si
+
| align="center" | <sup>28</sup>Si
−
| 27.976 926 532 46(194)
+
| 27.976 926 532 46(194)
−
| 92.2297(7)%
+
| 92.223(19)%
−
| 92.21–92.25%
+
| 92.205–92.241%
 
|-
 
|-
−
| align="center" | {{sup|29}}Si
+
| align="center" | <sup>29</sup>Si
−
| 28.976 494 700(22)
+
| 28.976 494 700(22)
−
| 4.6832(5)%
+
| 4.685(8)%
−
| 4.69–4.67%
+
| 4.678–4.692%
 
|-
 
|-
−
| align="center" | {{sup|30}}Si
+
| align="center" | <sup>30</sup>Si
−
| 29.973 770 171(32)
+
| 29.973 770 171(32)
−
| 3.0872(5)%
+
| 3.092(11)%
−
| 3.10–3.08%
+
| 3.082–3.102%
 
|-
 
|-
 
|}
 
|}
−
The calculation is exemplified for [[silicon]], whose atomic weight is especially important in [[metrology]]. Silicon exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: {{sup|28}}Si, {{sup|29}}Si and {{sup|30}}Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known to a precision of one part in 14&nbsp;billion for {{sup|28}}Si and about one part in one billion for the others. However the range of [[natural abundance]] for the isotopes is such that the standard abundance can only be given to about ±0.001% (see table).
+
The calculation is exemplified for [[silicon]], whose atomic weight is especially important in [[metrology]]. Silicon exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: <sup>28</sup>Si, <sup>29</sup>Si and <sup>30</sup>Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known to a precision of one part in 14&nbsp;billion for <sup>28</sup>Si and about one part in one billion for the others. However the range of [[natural abundance]] for the isotopes is such that the standard abundance can only be given to about ±0.01% (see table).
 
The calculation is
 
The calculation is
−
:''A''{{sub|r}}(Si) = (27.97693 × 0.922297) + (28.97649 × 0.046832) + (29.97377 × 0.030872) = 28.0854
+
:''A''<sub>r</sub>(Si) = (27.976 93 × 0.922 23) + (28.976 49 × 0.046 85) + (29.973 77 × 0.030 92) = 28.0854
−
The estimation of the [[Measurement uncertainty|uncertainty]] is complicated<ref name="Meija">{{cite journal | last = Meija | first = Juris | url = http://stacks.iop.org/Met/45/53 | journal = Metrologia | year = 2008 | title = Uncertainty propagation of atomic weight measurement results | volume = 45 | pages = 53–62 | doi = 10.1088/0026-1394/45/1/008 | last2 = Mester | first2 = Zoltán}}</ref>, especially as the [[sample distribution]] is not necessarily symmetrical: the [[IUPAC]] standard atomic weights are quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties,<ref name="Holden">{{cite journal | last = Holden | first = Norman E. | url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html | journal = Chemistry International | year = 2004 | issue = 1 | title = Atomic Weights and the International Committee—A Historical Review | volume = 26 | pages = 4–7}}</ref> and the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard uncertainty in this value is 1{{e|–5}} or 10&nbsp;ppm.
+
The estimation of the [[Measurement uncertainty|uncertainty]] is complicated,<ref name="Meija">{{citation | last1 = Meija | first1 = Juris | last2 = Mester | first2 = Zoltán | journal = Metrologia | year = 2008 | title = Uncertainty propagation of atomic weight measurement results | volume = 45 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–62 | doi = 10.1088/0026-1394/45/1/008}}.</ref> especially as the [[sample distribution]] is not necessarily symmetrical: the IUPAC standard atomic weights are quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties,<ref name="Holden">{{citation | last = Holden | first = Norman E. | url = http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html | journal = Chemistry International | year = 2004 | issue = 1 | title = Atomic Weights and the International Committee—A Historical Review | volume = 26 | pages = 4–7}}.</ref> and the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard uncertainty in this value is 1{{e|–5}} or 10&nbsp;ppm.
 +
 
 +
==See also==
 +
*[[Data:Atomic weights of the elements 2007]]
  
−
== References ==
+
==References==
 
{{reflist|2}}
 
{{reflist|2}}
  
 
== External links ==
 
== External links ==
 
*[http://www.ciaaw.org IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights]
 
*[http://www.ciaaw.org IUPAC Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights]
−
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some NIST relative atomic massas of all isotopes and the standard atomic weights of the elements]
+
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some NIST relative atomic masses of all isotopes and the standard atomic weights of the elements]
 
*[http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html Atomic Weights and the International Committee — A Historical Review]
 
*[http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html Atomic Weights and the International Committee — A Historical Review]
−
*[http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AtWt/index.html Atomic Weights of the Elements 2007] – semi-official compilation in advance of the formal publication of the report
 
  
 +
[[Category:Atomic weight| ]]
 
[[Category:Amount of substance]]
 
[[Category:Amount of substance]]
−
[[Category:Chemical properties]]
 
 
[[Category:Stoichiometry]]
 
[[Category:Stoichiometry]]
  
 
{{Imported from Wikipedia|title=Atomic weight|id=343389311}}
 
{{Imported from Wikipedia|title=Atomic weight|id=343389311}}

Latest revision as of 03:16, 7 April 2011

Atomic weight (symbol: Ar) is a dimensionless physical quantity, the ratio of the average mass of atoms of an element (from a given source) to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.[1][2] The term is usually used, without further qualification, to refer to the standard atomic weights published at regular intervals by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)[3] and which are intended to be applicable to normal laboratory materials. These standard atomic weights are reprinted in a wide variety of textbooks, commercial catalogues, wallcharts etc, and in the table below. The fact "relative atomic mass" may also be used to describe this physical quantity, and indeed the continued use of the term "atomic weight" has attracted considerable controversy since at least the 1960s[4] (see below).

Atomic weights, unlike atomic masses (the masses of individual atoms), are not physical constants and vary from sample to sample. Nevertheless, they are sufficiently constant in "normal" samples to be of fundamental importance in chemistry.

Definition

The IUPAC definition[1] of atomic weight is:

An atomic weight (relative atomic mass) of an element from a specified source is the ratio of the average mass per atom of the element to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of 12C.

The definition deliberately specifies "An atomic weight…", as an element will have different atomic weights depending on the source. For example, boron from Turkey has a lower atomic weight than boron from California, because of its different isotopic composition.[5][6] Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of isotope analysis, it is usual to use the tabulated values of standard atomic weights which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories.

Values to four figures

Group → 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
↓ Period
1 H
1.008
He
4.003
2 Li
6.941(2)† 		Be
9.012
B
10.81# 		C
12.01 		N
14.01 		O
16.00 		F
19.00 		Ne
20.18
3 Na
22.99 		Mg
24.31
Al
26.98 		Si
28.09 		P
30.97 		S
32.07# 		Cl
35.45 		Ar
39.95
4 K
39.10 		Ca
40.08# 		Sc
 44.96  		Ti
47.87 		V
50.94 		Cr
52.00 		Mn
54.94 		Fe
55.84 		Co
58.93 		Ni
58.69 		Cu
63.55 		Zn
65.38(2) 		Ga
69.72 		Ge
72.61 		As
74.92 		Se
78.96(3) 		Br
79.90 		Kr
83.80#
5 Rb
85.47# 		Sr
87.62# 		Y
88.91 		Zr
91.22# 		Nb
92.91 		Mo
95.96(2) 		Tc
[98.91] 		Ru
101.1# 		Rh
102.9 		Pd
106.4# 		Ag
107.9# 		Cd
112.4# 		In
114.8 		Sn
118.7# 		Sb
121.8# 		Te
127.6# 		I
126.9 		Xe
131.3#
6 Cs
132.9 		Ba
137.3 		*
Hf
178.5 		Ta
180.9 		W
183.9 		Re
186.2 		Os
190.2 		Ir
192.2 		Pt
195.1 		Au
197.0 		Hg
200.6 		Tl
204.4 		Pb
207.2# 		Bi
209.0 		Po
[210.0] 		At
[210.0] 		Rn
[222.0]
7 Fr
[223.0] 		Ra
[226.0] 		**
Rf
[263] 		Db
[262] 		Sg
[266] 		Bh
[264] 		Hs
[269] 		Mt
[268] 		Ds
[272] 		Rg
[272] 		Cn
[277] 		Uut
[284] 		Uuq
[289] 		Uup
[288] 		Uuh
[292] 		Uus
[294] 		Uuo
[293]

* Lanthanoids La
138.9 		Ce
140.1# 		Pr
140.9 		Nd
144.2# 		Pm
[146.9] 		Sm
150.4# 		Eu
152.0# 		Gd
157.3# 		Tb
158.9 		Dy
162.5# 		Ho
164.9 		Er
167.3# 		Tm
168.9 		Yb
173.1# 		Lu
175.0
** Actinoids Ac
[227.0] 		Th
232.0 		Pa
231.0 		U
238.0# 		Np
[237.0] 		Pu
[239.1] 		Am
[241.1] 		Cm
[244.1] 		Bk
[249.1] 		Cf
[252.1] 		Es
[252] 		Fm
[257] 		Md
[258] 		No
[259] 		Lr
[262]

Notes 
Values apply to elements of natural terrestrial origin. The last significant figure of each tabulated value is considered reliable to ±1 except when a larger single digit uncertainty is inserted in parentheses following the atomic weight.
Values in square brackets are for elements with no stable isotopes and no characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition. For such elements up to and including Cf (Z = 98), a four-figure relative atomic mass is given for the most commonly encountered isotope: for elements from Es (Z = 99) onwards, the value quoted is the mass number of the isotope with the longest half life.
† Commercially available Li materials have atomic weights that range between 6.939 and 6.996; if a more accurate value is required, it must be determined for the specific material.
# Values may differ from the atomic weights of the relevant elements in some naturally occurring samples because of a variation in the relative isotopic abundance.


Naming controversy

The use of the name "atomic weight" has attracted a great deal of controversy among scientists.[4] Objectors to the name usually prefer the term "relative atomic mass" (not to be confused with atomic mass). The basic objection is that atomic weight is not a weight, that is the force exerted on an object in a gravitational field, measured in units of force such as the newton.

In reply, supporters of the term "atomic weight" point out (among other arguments)[4] that

  • the name has been in continuous use for the same quantity since it was first conceptualized in 1808;[7]
  • for most of that time, atomic weights really were measured by weighing (that is by gravimetric analysis) and that the name of a physical quantity shouldn't change simply because the method of its determination has changed;
  • the term "relative atomic mass" should be reserved for the mass of a specific nuclide (or isotope), while "atomic weight" be used for the weighted mean of the atomic masses over all the atoms in the sample;
  • it is not uncommon to have misleading names of physical quantities which are retained for historical reasons, such as

It could be added that atomic weight is often not truly "atomic" either, as it doesn't correspond to the property of any individual atom. The same argument could be made against "relative atomic mass" used in this sense.

Determination of atomic weight

Modern atomic weights are calculated from measured values of atomic mass (for each nuclide) and isotopic composition. Highly accurate atomic masses are available[8][9] for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides, but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure to high precision and more subject to variation between samples.[10][11] For this reason, the atomic weights of the twenty-two mononuclidic elements are known to especially high accuracy – an uncertainty of only one part in 38 million in the case of fluorine, a precision which is greater than the current best value for the Avogadro constant (one part in 20 million).

Isotope Relative
atomic mass[9] 		Abundance[10]
Standard Range
28Si 27.976 926 532 46(194) 92.223(19)% 92.205–92.241%
29Si 28.976 494 700(22) 4.685(8)% 4.678–4.692%
30Si 29.973 770 171(32) 3.092(11)% 3.082–3.102%

The calculation is exemplified for silicon, whose atomic weight is especially important in metrology. Silicon exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: 28Si, 29Si and 30Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known to a precision of one part in 14 billion for 28Si and about one part in one billion for the others. However the range of natural abundance for the isotopes is such that the standard abundance can only be given to about ±0.01% (see table). The calculation is

Ar(Si) = (27.976 93 × 0.922 23) + (28.976 49 × 0.046 85) + (29.973 77 × 0.030 92) = 28.0854

The estimation of the uncertainty is complicated,[12] especially as the sample distribution is not necessarily symmetrical: the IUPAC standard atomic weights are quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties,[13] and the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard uncertainty in this value is 1 × 10–5 or 10 ppm.

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Atomic Weights of the Elements 1979. Pure Appl. Chem. 1980, 52 (10), 2349–84. DOI: 10.1351/pac198052102349.
  2. ↑ Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd ed.; Blackwell Science: Oxford, 1993; p 41. ISBN 0-63203-5838, <http://old.iupac.org/publications/books/gbook/green_book_2ed.pdf>.
  3. ↑ The latest edition is Atomic Weights of the Elements 2007. Pure Appl. Chem. 2009, 81 (11), 2131–56. DOI: 10.1351/PAC-REP-09-08-03.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 de Bièvre, P.; Peiser, H. S. 'Atomic Weight'—The Name, Its History, Definition, and Units. Pure Appl. Chem. 1992, 64 (10), 1535–43. DOI: 10.1351/pac199264101535.
  5. ↑ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. Chemistry of the Elements; Pergamon: Oxford, 1984; pp 21, 160. ISBN 0-08-022057-6.
  6. ↑ Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000. Pure Appl. Chem., 75 (6), 683–800. DOI: 10.1351/pac200375060683.
  7. ↑ Dalton, John (1808). A New System of Chemical Philosophy. 
  8. ↑ Atomic Weights and Isotopic Compositions for All Elements; National Institute of Standards and Technology, <http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&ascii=html&isotype=some>. (accessed 20 March 2010).
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Wapstra, A. H.; Audi, G.; Thibault, C. The AME2003 atomic mass evaluation (I). Evaluation of input data, adjustment procedures. Nucl. Phys. A 2003, 729, 129–336. DOI: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.002. Wapstra, A. H.; Audi, G.; Thibault, C. The AME2003 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs, and references. Nucl. Phys. A 2003, 729, 337–676. DOI: 10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.003. Data tables.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Böhlke, J. K.; de Laeter, J. R.; De Bièvre, P.; Hidaka, H.; Peiser, H. S.; Rosman, K. J. R.; Taylor, P. D. P. Isotopic Compositions of the Elements, 2001. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 2005, 34 (1), 57–67. DOI: 10.1063/1.1836764.
  11. ↑ Coplen, T. B.; Böhlke, J. K.; De Bièvre, P.; Ding, T.; Holden, N. E.; Hopple, J. A.; Krouse, H. R.; Lamberty, A., et al. Isotopic Abundance Variations Of Selected Elements. Pure Appl. Chem. 2002, 74 (10), 1987–2017. DOI: 10.1351/pac200274101987.
  12. ↑ Meija, Juris; Mester, Zoltán Uncertainty propagation of atomic weight measurement results. Metrologia 2008, 45 (1), 53–62. DOI: 10.1088/0026-1394/45/1/008.
  13. ↑ Holden, Norman E. Atomic Weights and the International Committee—A Historical Review. Chemistry International 2004, 26 (1), 4–7, <http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html>.

External links

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